Dirofilariasis Canina
La dirofilariasis canina o enfermedad del gusano del corazón es una enfermedad producida por una especie de nematodo parásito (Dirofilaria immitis) que se expande de huésped a huésped a través de las picaduras de mosquitos. El parásito afecta a los perros, gatos, lobos, coyotes, zorros, hurones, leones marinos, e incluso a los humanos. El gusano es llamado “gusano del corazón” porque el parásito, en su último estado reproductivo del ciclo de vida, reside en el corazón de su huésped donde puede quedarse varios años, hasta que mata al huésped por un paro cardíaco.
Historia de la enfermedad
Esta enfermedad fue descubierta en perros hace aproximadamente un siglo y reportada en gatos en los años 1920. Desde entonces, exámenes de detección y tratamientos contra el parásito, asimismo como medidas de prevención fueron descubiertas. La enfermedad puede ser muy peligrosa para el huésped infectado, perros infectados que no son tratados pueden morir, incluso los que son asistidos tienen que sufrir largos períodos de molestos tratamientos (a veces incluyendo cirugía) para poder matar a los gusanos y eliminarlos del cuerpo. La mejor defensa contra este parásito es el uso de un tratamiento profiláctico brindado en forma regular durante la estación de mosquitos.
Un camino para la prevención de la enfermedad comienza con un test de sangre para saber si el parásito está presente en su forma adulta (el test utilizado actualmente sólo detecta el parásito en su etapa adulta). Si el test da negativo, se le entrega una medicación preventiva de por vida, ésta medicación elimina la etapa larvaria e impide futuras infecciones. Si el test da positivo, el tratamiento para eliminar el gusano adulto es prolongado, costoso, y con cierto riesgo para el animal.
El parásito
Microfilaria.
El gusano tiene varios ciclos de vida antes que se vuelvan los adultos que infestan al corazón del huésped. El gusano necesita al mosquito como huésped intermedio para finalizar su ciclo de vida, o sea que al menos dos huéspedes además del mosquito son necesarios para la reproducción del parásito.
Síntomas de infección
Los perros no muestran señales de infestación durante los primeros 6 meses del período prelatente, antes de la maduración del gusano, aunque las pruebas diagnósticas para la presencia de la microfilaria o los antígenos pueden detectar el período prelatente. Raramente, una larva migrante se pierde y termina en sitios inusuales como el ojo, cerebro o una arteria en la pierna, lo que resulta en síntomas inusuales como ceguera, ataques epilépticos y cojeras.
DISTRIBUCIÓN GEOGRÁFICA
La dirofilariosis es prevalente en todas las zonas templadas y cálidas del mundo, pero el parásito se está adaptando a temperaturas más extremas estando presente también en países de clima continental, en los que su transmisión se limita a las estaciones templadas y cálidas. Los vectores necesitan zonas encharcadas para el desarrollo de sus larvas, por lo que la dirofilariosis se limita en su distribución a zonas con humedad constante (cuencas de ríos, áreas con abundante vegetación, cultivos de regadío, etc). En Europa, las mayores prevalencias se registran en los países del mediterráneo, en los que también muestra un importante carácter enzoótico; frente a prevalencias globales del 1-14%, se detectan zonas en el sur de Francia, norte de Italia y España con más del 30% de los perros parasitados.
MORFOLOGÍA Y BIOLOGÍA
Dirofilaria immitis es un nematodo delgado, de color blanco, que puede medir más de 30 cm de longitud. Presenta estriaciones en la cutícula, una boca pequeña con labios y una cápsula bucal rudimentaria. Los machos se distinguen de las hembras por ser más pequeños (12 a 20 cm de largo por 0,7 a 0,9 mm de ancho) y por tener el extremo posterior terminado en espiral (Fig. 2). Las hembras miden de 25 a 31 cm de longitud por 1,0 a 1,3 mm de anchura. La vulva se encuentra detrás del esófago, el extremo caudal es redondeado y no está enrollado en espiral. Son ovovivíparas y eliminan a la circulación sanguínea larvas (microfilarias) de 218 a 340 um X 4,5 a 7,3 um, sin vaina, fusiformes con el extremo cefálico más estrecho que el cuerpo y el caudal largo, puntiagudo y recto (Fig. 3).
En el ciclo biológico (Esquema 1) interviene un mosquito culícido, que ingiere las microfilarias al alimentarse. Éstas pasan desde el intestino medio a los túbulos de Malpighi donde mudan y alcanzan la fase infectante (LI – LII – LIII). Las LIII migran hasta las piezas bucales, donde permanecen hasta ser depositadas, junto con la hemolinfa, en la piel cuando el mosquito se alimenta de nuevo. El desarrollo completo en el vector requiere dos semanas (15-16°C) ó 8-10 días (a mas temperatura).
Las larvas penetran en el perro a través de la solución de continuidad producida por la picadura del mosquito, mudan a los 3-4 días (LIV) y realizan una migración subcutánea torácica. Después de 50-70 días mudan por cuarta y última vez (LV o preadultos). Los preadultos tienen una gran movilidad y capacidad de penetración en los distintos tejidos, siendo frecuentes las localizaciones ectópicas (bazo, cámara anterior del ojo, arterias del cerebro, arterias de las extremidades posteriores). Entre los 70-110 días p.i. se encuentran en la musculatura esquelética. Los parásitos, que miden 2-3 cm, llegan al corazón por penetración en circulación venosa y pasan a las arterias pulmonares, donde asientan definitivamente. Cuando la infección es muy elevada, también pueden localizarse en ventrículo y aurícula derechos, vena cava y hepáticas. Después de tres meses aproximadamente, alcanzan la madurez sexual. Desde la penetración de las larvas de tercer estadio hasta la maduración de los adultos y presencia en sangre de larvas de primer estadio o microfilarias (periodo de prepatencia) trascurren al menos 6 meses. Los adultos pueden vivir entre 5 y 7 años.
Las microfilarias tienen gran capacidad para migrar intravascular y extravascularmente por todos los órganos, habiéndose demostrado incluso su paso a través de placenta. Pueden permanecer en la circulación periférica varios meses, habiendose demostrado, experimentalmente, que pueden vivir hasta dos años.
La microfilaremia varía a lo largo del día con máximos en verano y a últimas horas de la tarde. La periodicidad no es unanimemente reconocida, no esta relacionada con la producción, (existe también en casos de ausencia de vermes adultos) y se desconoce su razón biológica.
EPIDEMIOLOGÍA
Reservorios: el principal hospedador definitivo y reservorio de la dirofilariosis es el perro, seguido por otros cánidos, principalmente lobos, zorros y coyotes. En España no existen muchos datos sobre reservorios silvestres, pero los estudios realizados en Zaragoza indican que el zorro podría ser un reservorio tan importante como el perro (31% prevalencia).
Otros hospedadores definitivos menos adecuados son los félidos, principalmente el gato, los mustélidos (el hurón) y el león marino de California, en los que hay desarrollo completo del parásito, pero la incidencia de la infección y la intensidad de parasitación son muy bajas y suele cursar con amicrofilaremia.
El hombre, algunos félidos silvestres, el oso y el mapache son hospedadores accidentales, en los que el desarrollo no se completa y la infección cursa sin microfilaremia.
Las infecciones amicrofilarémicas carecen de importancia epidemiológica. Además de presentarse en especies hospedadoras poco receptivas tambien puede producirse en el perro. Las causas principales son la hipersensibilización a las larvas, la infección con vermes de un sólo sexo o la inmadurez de los vermes (periodo de prepatencia). Amicrofilaremia accidental transitoria la provocan tratamientos quimioterapéuticos con fármacos con actividad icrofilaricida (ej. ivermectina o levamisol). La incidencia de la dirofilariosis con amicrofilaremia es de un 25%, aunque puede llegar al 80% en áreas hiperendémicas.
Es poco frecuente que los perros menores de un año alberguen vermes adultos, pero es posible la microfilaremia si la madre estaba infectada durante la gestación por transmisión transplacentaria que, aunque rara, convierte al cachorro en un reservorio potencial de este parasitosis.
Receptividad del perro: la población canina de mayor riesgo es la que está en constante contacto con el mosquito vector: los perros no controlados de áreas rurales, los que no tienen un cobijo permanente, los de caza, pastoreo, competición y aquellos que son trasladados a lugares endémicos, aún cuando los desplazamientos sean de corta duración.
El sexo y la raza influyen en la medida en que condicionan la aptitud de esta especie (los machos y determinadas razas son más utilizados para actividades de campo: caza, pastoreo etc.). La relación que puede establecerse entre la edad y la prevalencia-intensidad de esta parasitosis (las mayores prevalencias se presentan en perros de 3 a 7 años) y las menores tasas de parasitación que pueden presentar los perros de más de 10 años están relacionadas con la vida media del parásito (5 a 7 años) y con la respuesta inmune del hospedador.
La respuesta inmune es la causa principal del grado de parasitación que presentan los animales que viven en áreas endémicas y de 1/3 de las infecciones amicrofilarémicas (dirofilariosis oculta). Hay cierto grado de protección frente a la reinfección en los animales que ya están parasitados, inmunidad concomitante que influye notablemente sobre la intensidad de parasitación.
Vectores (Fig. 4): Al menos 70 especies de culícidos de los géneros Aedes, Anopheles, y Culex son receptivos a D. immitis, aunque la capacidad de transmitirla sólamente ha sido demostrada en diez especies. En España, en un estudio realizado en la provincia de Salamanca se observó una estrecha relación entre la distribución de Ae.vexans y Ae.caspius y la prevalencia de la dirofilariosis en perros; en las zonas de riesgo de Aragón las especies detectadas han sido C.pipiens, Ae. caspius y An. maculipenis atroparvus.
Factores medioambientales: Los culícidos requieren un medio húmedo para el desarrollo de sus larvas y temperaturas medias superiores a los 14°C para completar su ciclo biológico. El tamaño de la población depende de la temperatura, humedad relativa, lluvia e intensidad de luz. El viento y la intensidad de luz son factores importantes en la dispersión de los vectores y consecuentemente en la de la dirofilariosis.
El parásito completa su desarrollo en el mosquito en 2 semanas a temperaturas de 14-16ºC y en una a temperaturas medias de 25ºC (mínimo 6 días). El desarrollo se inhibe a temperaturas inferiores a los 12°C, aunque las larvas de D.immitis pueden sobrevivir en el mosquito hibernante y completar el desarrollo cuando las temperaturas superan ese umbral.
El ciclo de la filaria comienza cuando el mosquito pica a un perro infectado e ingesta mierofilaria con sangre. El mosquito luego sirve como lugar de mudanza para el futuro desarrollo de los parásitos. Dentro de los 10 a 15 días, la mierofilaria entra en la saliva del mosquito huésped. En esta etapa se llama “larva infecciosas” porque madurará luego que reingresa en los animales.
Cuando el mosquito pica a otro perro o gato, las larvas entran a través de la herida del pinchazo producido por el insecto. Después de 3 ó 4 meses de desarrollo, migran al corazón donde se desarrollan en adultos sexualmente maduros.
Al principio, el animal afectado muestra pocos signos de infestación. Los signos dependen de la severidad de la infección, la ubicación de la filaria, el tiempo que han estado presentes,y la cantidad de daños efectuados al corazón, pulmones, hígado y otros órganos. Por un período de tiempo, el animal afectado mostrará cada vez menos tolerancia al juego y al ejercicio.
Los signos más obvios son una tos seca y crónica, respiración debil, debilidad, nerviosismo, inquietud y pérdida de peso. Sin tratamiento, el resultado final es la muerte.
El Médico Veterinario debe efectuar un análisis de sangre a su perro para asegurarse que la mierofilaria no está presente en el torrente sanguíneo. Si el análisis de sangre es negativo, el profesional prescribirá una prevención diaria o mensual que será administrada como se prescribe para proteger al perro de la infección. Si el análisis de filaria es positivo, es necesario un tratamiento. Los perros tratados deben estar monitoreados de cerca y deben mantenerse quietos y confinados. Actualmente se está usando una droga inyectable el dihidroclorhidrato de melarsomina.
Un programa preventivo es la clave para mantener los perros libres de filaria. En áreas donde los perros están expuestos a mosquitos durante todo el año, la medicación preventiva debe suministrarse en ese período.
Si el problema del mosquito es estacional, el tratamiento debe comenzar al principio de la temporada de mosquitos y continuar luego de ésta. Aún en áreas estacionadas, los veterinarios pueden recomendar un tratamiento anual.
Como prevención hay que rociar para controlar los insectos y drenar los suelos donde se crían los mosquitos también ayudará a reducir la incidencia de la filaria canina. Todas las puertas y ventanas en las perreras deben tener mamparas para ayudar a prevenir la entrada de mosquitos y otros insectos.
PATOGENIA Y PATOLOGÍA
Las alteraciones en la dirofilariosis crónica son debidas, principalmente, al asentamiento de los vermes adultos en la arteria pulmonar. La respuesta inmune es la causa de la patología de la dirofilariosis oculta y de la glomerulonefritis que suelen presentar todos los perros parasitados. La presencia de un elevado número de vermes en la vena cava caudal es la causa de un proceso agudo mortal conocido como síndrome de vena cava o del fallo hepático. La muerte de los vermes puede provocar complicaciones por tromboembolización, particularmente frecuentes en el tratamiento curativo de infecciones elevadas. Los esquemas 2, 3, 4 y 5 reflejan la patogenia y cuadro clínico de los diferentes síndromes y en el esquema 6 los de la complicación por tromboembolización de los vermes.
En la dirofilariosis se distinguen cuatro posibles síndromes: la hipertensión pulmonar o “cor pulmonale”, el fallo congestivo del corazón derecho, el síndrome de vena cava o del fallo hepático y la neumonitis alérgica o dirofilariosis oculta. Cualquiera de ellos puede verse agravado por complicaciones tromboembólicas derivadas de la muerte de los vermes.
La hipertensión pulmonar: es la alteración funcional más significativa. Este “cor pulmonale”, dependiendo de la intensidad de parasitación y de la respuesta del hospedador, puede pasar desapercibido o cursar con fatiga, tos crónica y disnea.
La hipertensión pulmonar es debida a las alteraciones que sufre el endotelio de la arteria parasitada. La pared presenta aspecto rugoso y tonalidad púrpura por intensa proliferación de la íntima; endarteritis pulmonar, aterosclerosis o hiperplasia que presentan todos los perros con dirofilariosis. Histológicamente la íntima tiene un aspecto villiforme con proliferaciones formadas principalmente por células musculares lisas, que han emigrado desde la túnica media, y por el colágeno que ellas producen.
Las pequeñas arterias del parénquima pulmonar y las venas tambien suelen presentar proliferaciones que están cubiertas por endotelio morfológicamente normal. En áreas de lesiones arteriales graves, algunos bronquiolos presentan hipertrofia muscular (músculo de Reisesse) y hay fibrosis intersticial y hemosiderosis pulmonar. Acúmulo de hemosiderina que también se presenta en los ganglios linfáticos y es atribuido a productos del catabolismo del parásito. Las alteraciones en venas, parénquima pulmonar y bronquiolos, lugares a los que no llegan los vermes, son atribuídas a la difusión de factores de crecimiento derivados de las plaquetas y a otros factores tróficos, de naturaleza desconocida, que difunden desde la arteria pulmonar lesionada.
La endarteritis, los vermes y la tromboembolización de proliferaciones desgarradas provocan una importante reducción en la luz y, consecuentemente, aumento de la presión arterial pulmonar. Es frecuente la dilatación vicariante del arbol arterial pulmonar, tortuosidad en su recorrido y obstrucción de las partes distales, imágen apreciable en radiografías (Fig. 5) y ecocardiografías de gran utilidad en el diagnóstico. En las zonas de mayor obstrucción del flujo sanguíneo se suele producir anastomosis (Fig. 5).
Si la parasitación es moderada y estable, las arterias lesionadas se esclerosan y la presión sanguínea se estabiliza, proceso crónico que perdurará en el animal sin que se presenten signos de hipertensión pulmonar. En otros casos, la presión sanguínea se mantiene elevada y aparecen signos de hipertensión pulmonar, pudiendo producirse un fallo cardiaco.
Fallo congestivo del corazón derecho: La endarteritis provoca pérdida de elasticidad de las paredes arteriales, que no admiten la dilatación requerida para que se mantenga un flujo de sangre normal. Para compensar la disminución de flujo aumentan la presión y el trabajo del ventrículo derecho, con dilatación e hipertrofia del corazón derecho y fallo congestivo por incapacidad para mantener la alta presión de perfusión que se requiere para mover la sangre por el pulmón.
El fallo congestivo del corazón derecho es frecuente en infecciones masivas y en animales sometidos a ejercicio físico. Un signo característico del fallo congestivo es el aspecto de cansado que presenta el animal incluso en reposo. La tos y la disnea se agravan, se produce taquicardia, anorexia con pérdida de peso e incluso caquexia. La extravasación plasmática es mayor que en el “cor pulmonale” y provoca edemas periféricos superficiales y ascitis. Se produce un importante aumento de la presión venosa y del pulso yugular, asociados en muchas ocasiones a hepatomegalia. Las imágenes radiográficas, los electrocardiogramas y los ecocardiogramas son de gran ayuda para detectar el fallo congestivo del corazón.
Síndrome de vena cava o del fallo hepático: es particularmente frecuente en animales muy jóvenes (menos de 3 años) y responde a la presencia de más de 100 vermes adultos (excepcionalmente, se puede presentar en infecciones con pocos vermes). Los animales con este síndrome también presentan “cor pulmonale”, pero los signos más importantes se deben a las alteraciones hepáticas.
La presencia del parásito en aurícula derecha, vena cava caudal y en ocasiones venas hepáticas provoca obstrucción del flujo sanguíneo, principalmente a nivel de válvula tricúspide. La presión venosa central se eleva considerablemente y el hígado sufre una fuerte congestión y dilatación de los sinusoides que puede provocar la transformación cavernosa de todo el parénquima hepático.
La disfunción hepática es apreciable por la elevación de todas las enzimas hepatocitarias y de la bilirrubina en sangre. El hígado no puede esterificar el colesterol libre, aumenta el cociente libre/esterificado y, consecuentemente, los eritrocitos acumulan en su pared colesterol libre, son muy frágiles y se rompen al contacto con los vermes. La hemólisis es constante y el hígado no metaboliza la hemoglobina por lo que rápidamente se produce hemoglobinemia y hemoglobinuria. La anemia normocrómica y normocítica se agrava por la anorexia. Las mucosas están pálidas o ictéricas (Fig. 6) y el animal presenta gran debilidad y depresión.
La interacción del parásito con la válvula tricúspide provoca murmullo sistólico apreciable a la auscultación. Las posibilidades de vida del animal con síndrome de vena cava son escasas si no se extraen rápidamente los vermes. Por venoctomía yugular con forceps o “pinza aligator” se puedde eliminar el parásito, desapareciendo los signos de este síndrome en 24 horas.
Neumonitis alérgica: Es debida a la hipersensibilización del perro a los antígenos de las microfilarias, que son rápidamente capturadas e inmovilizadas en la microcirculación del pulmón y destruidas en los capilares pulmonares y septos alveolares, lo que provoca infiltración granulomatosa densa apreciable radiológicamente. Provoca un grave distrés respiratorio conocido como neumonitis alérgica por dirofilariosis, de similares características que la eosinifilia pulmonar tropical que provoca esta filaria en el hombre.
En esta intensa reacción granulomatosa están implicados neutrófilos, eosinófilos y macrófagos y su adhesión a las microfilarias parece depender de los anticuerpos y del complemento. Los anticuerpos desencadenantes de este tipo de adhesión, conocida como reacción de Pandit, son estadio y especie específicos. Se desconoce si esta embolización de las microfilarias contribuye a la hipertensión pulmonar.
Todos los perros con neumonitis alérgica (dirofilariosis oculta) presentan enfermedad crónica progresiva con tos seca, disnea, intolerancia al ejercicio y ruido bronquial (crepitación).
Tromboembolización: El parásito vivo resiste a la tromboembolización pero cuando muere se produce trombosis masiva e inflamación granulomatosa de la pared de las arterias. El endotelio se desorganiza y la proliferación villosa de la íntima aumenta exageradamente. La permeabilidad aumenta, por lo que se agrava el edema perivascular. Los fragmentos del parásito son calcificados parcialmente e incorporados a la pared de la arteria, que presenta gran cantidad de tejido conectivo fibroso. Los trombos y la rigidez de estas arterias lesionadas agravan considerablemente la hipertensión pulmonar y con ello la tos, la disnea y la intolerancia al ejercicio, siendo frecuente el fallo congestivo cardíaco o incluso la muerte, si con anterioridad el perro ya presentaba esta alteración. La trombosis y la lisis de los coágulos puede provocar un déficit local de los factores de coagulación, coagulopatía intravascular diseminada (CID) que causa hemorragias multifocales. La hemoptisis y la epístaxis (Fig. 7) son muy frecuentes pudiendo sobrevenir la muerte por shock hipovolémico. Estos animales suelen presentar una elevación importante de la temperatura corporal, taquicardia, debilidad y mucosas pálidas.
Esta patología es muy importante cuando se provoca la muerte brusca del parásito por administración de un fármaco adulticida, complicación tromboembólica que debe considerarse siempre que se realice el tratamiento quimioterapéutico de la dirofilariosis.
ALTERACIONES HEPÁTICAS Y RENALES
El hígado en perros con hipertensión pulmonar suele presentar congestión pasiva leve, que no afecta a la funcionalidad hepática y es apreciable en cortes histológicos por dilatación de sinusoides y áreas focales de retención de sangre. En el fallo congestivo del corazón el hígado está más afectado, la retención de sangre provoca hepatomegalia y alteración de la funcionalidad de los hepatocitos, apreciable por el perfil enzimático que presentan los perros.
El riñón suele presentar importantes alteraciones, derivadas, fundamentalmente, de la formación de inmunocomplejos. Casi todos los perros con dirofilariosis crónica presentan glomerulonefritis membranosa por engrosamiento de la membrana basal de los capilares glomerulares (Fig. 8). Esta glomerulopatía es debida a la adhesión de complejos inmunes, en los que están implicados los antígenos circulantes (solubles) de los adultos y de las microfilarias, las IgG e IgM y el complemento. La glomerulonefritis puede dar paso a una nefrosis severa con proteinuria. Otra importante alteración inmunopatológica es la nefritis intersticial con infiltrado de células plasmáticas, linfocitos y macrófagos en el intersticio medular y cortical. Estas lesiones suelen aparecer de forma focal o difusa.
PATOLOGÍA CLÍNICA
Signos clínicos: La detección de la hipertensión pulmonar en las fases iniciales de la dirofilariosis es difícil pues los cambios en las arterias son discretos. La presión en ventrículo derecho y en arteria pulmonar permanece normal o ligeramente elevada durante el gasto cardíaco en reposo. Muchos perros son totalmente asintomáticos o presentan signos tan discretos que pasan desapercibidos.
Los signos de hipertensión pulmonar más frecuentes son: tos, disnea y una menor tolerancia al ejercicio. Según se agrava la enfermedad aparecen síncopes, hemoptisis y pérdida de peso, aún con buen apetito. La epístaxis asociada a trombocitopenia puede presentarse en perros con enfermedad arterial pulmonar grave y complicaciones tromboembólicas. Puede aparecer antes del tratamiento adulticida por coagulopatía intravascular diseminada, pero son más frecuentes estos signos 2 ó 3 semanas después de un tratamiento adulticida.
La forma más frecuente de presentación del síndrome de vena cava es la aparición brusca de un shock cardiógeno con taquicardia, taquipnea, disnea y colapso, asociados a una hemoglobinuria masiva. En el examen cardiovascular de estos perros se aprecia pulso yugular sistólico, soplo de insuficiencia tricuspidal y a veces taquicardia supraventricular. La aparición brusca de hemoglobinuria, bilirrubinuria y debilidad, asociados a un soplo holosistólico o de regurgitación tricuspidal, deben ser siempre sospecha de una dirofilariosis con síndrome de vena cava, únicos hallazgos físicos que pueden considerarse patognomónicos de la dirofilariosis.
Los animales con neumonitis alérgica presentan signos de enfermedad crónica; la tos es seca e intermitente y la disnea va asociada a crepitación.
Analítica clínica: Un 10% de los perros presentan anemia normocrómica-normocítica y valor hematócrito del 10 al 30%. El 50% de los perros con enfermedad grave están anémicos. La vida media de los eritrocitos es normal (25 días) en perros asintomáticos pero se reduce a 15 días en perros con signos de hipertensión pulmonar y a 11 días en perros con dirofilariosis grave.
La fórmula leucocitaria suele ser normal en los perros asintomáticos. Aproximadamente en la mitad de los casos de dirofilariosis hemos detectado eosinofilia sin basofilia.
El proteinograma no suele estar alterado y cuando lo está es por un aumento importante de las globulinas en sus fracciones beta y gamma y, en menor medida, de las alfa2. Hipoalbuminemia puede presentarse en algunos casos graves como resultado de glomerulopatía o de insuficiencia hepática.
El perfil de coagulación presenta importantes alteraciones en perros con tromboembolización intensa postratamiento adulticida. En animales asintomáticos o con leves signos de hipertensión pulmonar, no suelen estar alterados los factores de coagulación y su modificación responde más a la elevación de las beta-proteinas que a un incremento de la actividad de estos factores.
Las enzimas hepatocitarias, principalmente la ALT y AST, suelen estar elevadas en no más de un 10% de los perros con dirofilariosis, a pesar de que la evaluación de la funcionalidad hepática por la bromosulftaleina (BSP) muestre aclaramientos anormales en un 20% de los perros con dirofilariosis asintomática y en un 50% de los que presentan fallo congestivo del corazón derecho. Las alteraciones enzimáticas son importantes en el fallo hepático o síndrome de vena cava. Los perros con dirofilariosis asintomática o con discreta hipertensión pulmonar no presentan alteración en las enzimas hepatocitarias, aún en casos en los que el estudio histológico del parénquima hepático ha demostrado dilatación de sinusoides y congestiones focales difusas.
La azotemia se presenta en menos de un 5% de los perros con dirofilariosis y siempre asociada a una variada sintomatología.
El urinálisis presenta alteraciones estrechamente relacionadas con la gravedad del proceso. En los casos leves no suele detectarse ninguna alteración, aun con glomerulonefritis membranosa que se considera presente en todos los animales con dirofilariosis. Una proteinuria leve suele presentarse en el 30% de los perros con signos clínicos y la mayoría de los perros con fallo congestivo del corazón presentan albuminuria de grado medio, asociada a hipoalbuminemia. La disfunción glomerular provoca proteinuria con isostenuria, de obligada determinación antes de instaurar un tratamiento adulticida (fármacos nefrotóxicos). Algunos perros presentan proteinuria grave asociada a síndromes nefróticos y amiloidosis. En el síndrome de vena cava invariablemente se presenta bilirrubinuria y hemoglobinuria de aparición brusca y previa a cualquier otro signo clínico.
Alteraciones radiográficas y electrocardiográficas: Las alteraciones radiográficas de las arterias pulmonares son muy acusadas y la más frecuente es la protusión del segmento principal de la arteria pulmonar, apreciable incluso en perros con infección leve. Este cambio morfológico, junto con el grado de hipertrofia del ventrículo derecho, tiende a convertir la silueta cardÍaca, en proyección dorsoventral, en una D mayúscula invertida.
Las arterias suelen terminar irregularmente y su diámetro es superior al normal, todas presentan dilatación y se hacen más tortuosas a medida que la infección progresa. Las arterias lobulares y sus ramas principales en el lóbulo caudal presentan la dilatación más amplia y precoz. Es frecuente la presencia de lesiones intra-arteriales focales (ausencia de contraste) típicas de tromboembolización.
La presencia de nódulos eosinofílicos granulomatosos en el intersticio pulmonar es significativa de una neumonitis alérgica por dirofilariosis oculta, tiende a establecerse en mayor grado en los lóbulos caudales y es más intensa en las cercanías de las arterias pulmonares.
Las alteraciones electrocardiográficas más frecuentes son la elevación en la presión del atrio derecho (onda V) y un bajo índice cardíaco. En los casos de hipertrofia ventricular asociada a hipertensión pulmonar es frecuente una onda S en las derivaciones I, II y III, electrocardiogramas S1, S2 y S3 de gran valor diagnóstico del fallo cardíaco por dirofilariosis. Los perros con tromboembolizaciones, lesiones en la válvula mitral o tricúspide asociadas a muerte de los vermes o a síndrome de vena cava suelen presentar presión arterial alta.
OTROS PROCESOS PROVOCADOS POR D. immitis
Se han descrito alteraciones de características muy diversas y en órganos a los que habitualmente no tiene acceso este parásito en estado adulto. En algunos casos las lesiones son debidas a infecciones por vermes erráticos que no completan el desarrollo, por lo que no existen microfilarias ni en sangre periférica ni en las áreas lesionadas, y el diagnóstico etiológico sólo es posible por aislamiento e identificación post- biopsia. En otros casos existen también vermes adultos en arteria pulmonar principal y microfilaremia, que permiten un fácil diagnóstico etiológico.
Las alteraciones orgánicas descritas con mayor frecuencia son los nódulos subcutáneos de localización diversa por encapsulamiento de vermes inmaduros, nódulos pulmonares solitarios de características similares a los que se presentan en la dirofilariosis humana y mucocele en glándulas salivares. Lesiones intraoculares, por presencia de vermes inmaduros; edemas de córnea, que pueden ser transitorios o permanentes, y cegueras secundarias a glaucomas son las alteraciones oculares más frecuentes que se han descrito; con menor frecuencia se presenta hiperemia de la conjuntiva, fotofobia, inflamación iridociliar y panoftalmia.
DIAGNÓSTICO
En la dirofilariosis no existen signos patognomónicos y es frecuente que curse de forma asintomática, diagnosticándose la infección, en muchos casos, por observación post-mortem de los vermes en arteria pulmonar y corazón derecho.
CLÍNICO: debe evaluarse el estado general y funcionalidad hepática, renal y cardíaca, pues, aunque no existe ningún signo clínico exclusivo de la dirofilariosis, y frecuentemente es asintomática, antes de instaurar un tratamiento curativo es necesario conocer el estado clínico del animal.
El grado de alteración cardiopulmonar puede determinarse por radiología y ecocardiografía. La funcionalidad hepática y renal por pruebas bioquímicas; uremia, creatinina, BUN, AST y ALT son las más adecuadas. Una buena aproximación al diagnóstico etiológico puede realizarse con la ecocardiografía, especialmente aconsejable en caso de sospecha de síndrome de vena cava.
ETIOLÓGICO: La inespecificidad de la mayor parte de los datos clínicos aconseja el diagnóstico etiológico, que incluye detección de microfilarias y su identificación específica (ver “otras filariosis del perro”) y si es negativo realizar pruebas de inmunodetección (antígenos, principalmente).
La detección de las microfilarias se realiza en sangre con anticoagulante. La técnica modificada de Knott (método de sedimentación) y la filtración a través de membranas de policarbonato de 3-5 m de diámetro de poro son los métodos más adecuados.
La identificación de las microfilarias por las características morfológicas (longitud, anchura a nivel del anillo nervioso, localización y disposición del poro excretor, poro anal y espacio cefálico) es muy dificil, pues éstas no son fáciles de observar y en muchos casos son compartidas con las microfilarias de otras especies de filarias del perro.
Las microfilarias de D. immitis son anchas, con el extremo anterior cónico y la cola larga y recta (ver Fig. 2). Estas características también las presentan las microfilarias de D. repens y un alto porcentaje de las de Dip. dracunculoides. En general se acepta que sólo las microfilarias de Dip. reconditum podrían ser identificadas con cierta facilidad por su morfometría. Además, suelen ser escasas y de movimiento rectilineo no progresivo, mientras que las microfilarias de D. immitis suelen ser numerosas y con movimientos ondulantes no progresivos. Estas características son subjetivas, pero son de utilidad (parcial) en las áreas donde sólo estén presentes estas dos especies.
La forma más correcta de identificación específica es por el patrón de distribución somática de la actividad de las fosfatasas ácidas que presentan las microfilarias, tinción que puede realizarse sobre extensiones sanguíneas o en microfilarias obtenidas por filtración.
En las microfilarias de D. immitis la actividad de las fosfatasas ácidas se localiza en el poro excretor y poro anal. D. repens presenta actividad en el poro anal y, en ocasiones, en el cuerpo interno; Dip. dracunculoides en el poro excretor, el poro anal, el cuerpo interno y el espacio cefálico y Dip. reconditum en todo el cuerpo, ocasionalmente menos intenso en la mitad anterior.
El inmunodiagnóstico se recomienda en animales con signos clínicos que sugieren la enfermedad, pero con diagnóstico de microfilaremia negativo. Se puede realizar detección de anticuerpos o de antígenos específicos del parásito adulto. En ambos casos existen pruebas comerciales con base en el enzimoinmunoensayo o la aglutinación, principalmente. La sensibilidad es menor en infecciones con microfilaremia, pudiendo llevar a resultados negativos falsos, por lo que previamente debe realizarse detección de microfilarias.
Las pruebas de detección de anticuerpos presentan una gran sensibilidad llegando a detectar infecciones con pocos vermes y a los 6 meses de la penetración de las LIII. Las de detección de antígenos son 100% específicas pero su sensibilidad es baja en infecciones recientes (menos de 10-12 meses) y en las producidas por 1-3 adultos; son de gran utilidad para la evaluación del tratamiento adulticida, pues los perros que han sido tratados eficazmente con un adulticida presentan seroconversión a negativos en 8-12 semanas postratamiento; permiten realizar semicuantificación de la carga parasitaria, de gran utilidad en la evaluación del riesgo de complicaciones postratamiento por tromboembolismo.
DIAGNÓSTICO DIFERENCIAL:
Son multiples las causas de las alteraciones cardiopulmonares con las características clínicas de la dirofilariosis, por lo que será necesario un diagnóstico diferencial, principalmente en caso de un diagnóstico laboratorial de dirofilariosis negativo. Otros agentes responsables de alteraciones compatibles con las provocadas por D. immitis son: el nematodo Angiostrongylus vasorum (ver capítulo “otras nematodosis”), y algunas infecciones bacterianas y víricas.
CONTROL
No existe ningún fármaco simultáneamente eficaz frente a los adultos y estadios larvarios, por lo que es necesario un tratamiento secuencial con diferentes fármacos (adulticida y microfilaricida). Los fármacos adulticidas son hepato y nefrotóxicos siendo necesario conocer la funcionalidad de estos órganos antes de su administración. El reposo y el empleo de aspirina antes y durante el tratamiento adulticida son aconsejables para evitar complicaciones tromboembólicas. El tratamiento debe evitarse en caso de fallo cardíaco congestivo, síndrome de vena cava, signos de tromboembolizaciones, coagulación intravascular diseminada, neumonitis alérgica, cirrosis hepática, azotemia y nefropatías con proteinuria.
En general, es de gran utilidad la siguiente clasificación clínica para la aplicación del tratamiento adulticida:
CLASE I: ENFERMEDAD SUBCLÍNICA TRATAMIENTO ADULTICIDA
REPOSO (un mes) + MICROFILARICIDA
CLASE II: ENFERMEDAD MODERADA ANTIAGREGANTE PLAQUETARIO
TRATAMIENTO ADULTICIDA
REPOSO (un mes) + MICROFILARICIDA
CLASE III: ENFERMEDAD GRAVE TRATAMIENTO SINTOMÁTICO ANTITROMBÓTICO Y REPOSO
TRATAMIENTO ADULTICIDA
REPOSO (un mes) + MICROFILARICIDA
SÍNDROME DE VENA CAVA EXTRACCIÓN QUIRÚRGICA
REPOSO (un mes)
TRATAMIENTO ADULTICIDA
TRATAMIENTO MICROFILARICIDA
TRATAMIENTO SINTOMÁTICO
Si el perro muestra signos de enfermedad vascular o hipertensión pulmonar graves se recomienda el tratamiento previo con ácido acetilsalicílico, 5 mg/kg durante 7-14 días, durante y hasta 3-4 semanas postratamiento adulticida.
En caso de que existan signos de coagulación intravascular diseminada, antes del tratamiento adulticida debe administrarse heparina sódica 150 UI/kg cada 8 horas, durante 10 días, se recomienda su prolongación durante 30 días postratamiento adulticida.
Si muestra signos de fallo cardíaco congestivo se administrarán diuréticos como la furosemida a razón de 3-5 mg/kg cada 8 horas. También pueden administrarse vasodilatadores mixtos como el captopril o el enalapril.
En casos de neumonitis intersticial deben administrarse corticoides. Los glucocorticoides sólo deben utilizarse cuando existan signos evidentes de neumonitis, pues suelen agravar la tromboembolización y la fibrosis periarterial al interferir en la eliminación de los fragmentos de los vermes muertos y, consecuentemente, en la resolución de las lesiones arteriales. A su vez, activan la adhesión de las plaquetas y la proliferación de la íntima. Aunque los antiinflamatorios reducen la acumulación de fluido en intersticio y alveolos, también reducen el flujo de sangre arterial agravando la hipertensión pulmonar y favoreciendo el fallo congestivo.
TRATAMIENTO ETIOLÓGICO
En el tratamiento de la dirofilariosis debe realizarse administración de un adulticida y un microfilaricida, posteriormente puede mantenerse al animal en terapia preventiva. En perros con microfilaremia, el tratamiento adulticida siempre debe ir seguido de un tratamiento microfilaricida.
Tratamiento adulticida: Los arsenicales pentavalentes son los fármacos que se emplean en la actualidad para la eliminación de vermes adultos. El levamisol también es eficaz pero debido a su toxicidad a las dosis aplicables (11 mg/Kg/cada 3-4 horas, 3-4 semanas), no suele emplearse.
Tiacetarsamida sódica (CaparsolateR, FilaramideR), administración endovenosa a la dosis de 2,2 mg/kg cada 12 horas durante dos días seguidos. Conviene dar alimento 30 minutos antes de cada inyección. Si se extravasa es muy irritante y tóxico y provoca periflebitis y necrosis de tejidos blandos que puede evitarse por aplicación en el área de extravasación de un fluido isotónico diluyente, inyección en la zona afectada de dexametasona o aplicación de un antiinflamatorio de uso tópico.
Melarsamina sódica (ImmiticideR). Administración intramuscular en dosis de 2,2 mg/kg (dos inyecciones) con un intervalo de 3 horas en los perros con dirofilariosis clase I. A la dosis de 2,5 mg/kg cada 24 horas en dirofilariosis clase II. A la dosis de 2,5 mg/kg, administración seguida al mes o dos meses de dos aplicaciones con intervalo de 24 horas, en los perros con dirofilariosis en clase III.
EXTRACCIÓN QUIRÚRGICA DE ADULTOS
En el síndrome de vena cava debe realizarse la extracción mecánica del parásito con un “forceps alligator” rígido o flexible introducido vía vena yugular externa. Se suele realizar con anestesia local pues el estado del animal puede ser demasiado crítico para la anestesia general. Una vez realizada la extracción se recomienda el tratamiento adulticida 2-4 semanas después de la intervención quirúrgica.
Las arterias pulmonares principales son accesibles al “forceps alligator” con la ayuda de un fluoroscopio, práctica quirúrgica que se recomienda en animales con una elevada carga parasitaria, pues reduce las posibilidades de complicaciones tromboembólicas postratamiento adulticida que tienen estos perros.
TRATAMIENTO MICROFILARICIDA
Se debe aplicar 4-6 semanas después del adulticida para no añadir posibles complicaciones a los procesos de embolización de los fragmentos de adultos por la formación de microgranulomas, que también se forman en el hígado y pueden potenciar la hepatotoxicidad derivada del arsenical.
Existen varios fármacos con actividad microfilaricida, como la ditiazanina iodada, el levamisol y el fentión; sin embargo, en la actualidad sólamente se suelen emplear los macrólidos ivermectina y milbemicina, a pesar de no estar registrados para ese fin y poder presentar riesgos de carácter individual.
La ivermectina es eficaz frente a las microfilarias en circulación sanguínea y en útero a la dosis de 50 g/kg vía subcutánea u oral. Los efectos adversos son poco frecuentes y parecen ser debidos a la muerte de gran cantidad de microfilarias, reacción generalizada que se manifiesta con depresión y anorexia o hipotensión y shock tipo colapso. Otros efectos secundarios referenciados sólamente se presentan tras administración de dosis muy elevadas: midriasis (2,5 mg/kg), tremor (5 mg/kg) o coma y colapso (10-20 mg/kg).
La milbemicina es microfilaricida a la dosis de 0,5 mg/kg. Los efectos secundarios son debidos a la respuesta por muerte de gran cantidad de microfilarias. Puede apreciarse colapso circulatorio 6-8 horas postratamiento, que responde bien a corticosteroides y fluido parenteral. Anorexia y letargo también pueden apreciarse a las 24 horas de la administración de milbemicina o ivermectina.
TRATAMIENTO PREVENTIVO
El tratamiento preventivo se debe realizar desde el comienzo de la época de vuelo de los mosquitos vectores hasta 1-2 meses después de su desaparición. Este periodo puede ser muy diferente de unas zonas a otras. En general, en gran parte de España podemos considerar que este periodo se extiende desde marzo-abril hasta octubre-noviembre. En algunas zonas del sur de España y en las islas Baleares y Canarias la temperatura mínima media no baja de 10ºC por lo que es posible la transmisión (infección) a lo largo de todo el año.
La dietilcarbamacina a la dosis de 5.5-6.5 mg/kg todos los días durante el periodo de riesgo. Es necesario verificar la ausencia de microfilaremia antes de tratar. La dietalcarbamacina produce shock anafiláctico cuando existe microfilaremia y la muerte en un 10-20% de estos perros. Desde la aparición de otros fármacos preventivos éste ha caido en desuso por sus muchas complicaciones. En España no esta registrado este producto para tal fin.
La ivermectina a la dosis de 6-12 g/kg cada mes durante el periodo de riesgo es eficaz frente a las LIII y LIV. A estas dosis no se han descrito efectos adversos. En España está registrada para utilización en la prevención de la dirofilariosis con el nombre de Cardotek y en asociación con el pamoato de pirantel como Cardotek-Plus. Este último es capaz de eliminar la infección por nematodos Toxocara, Toxascaris, Ancylostoma y Uncinaria, muy prevalentes en el perro (véase capítulo de nematodosis intestinalesI).
La milbemicina a la dosis de 0,5-1 mg/kg todos los meses de riesgo.
La moxidectina. Estudios de campo han demostrado que la moxidectina a la dosis de 3 g/kg administrada mensualmente durante el periodo de riesgo es eficaz en la prevención de la infección.
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